actions taken to reduce the risk of becoming a crime victim. Instead, the focus is on quantifying the costs incurred directly by or on behalf of the crime victim.

For lack of solid data, this study also omits some victimization costs. Major omissions include (1) expenses for processing public and private disability insurance payments and welfare payments to those permanently disabled by crime, (2) long-term effects on victim earnings resulting from psychological injury caused by domestic violence, and (3) "second generation costs" such as crimes committed by persons who were themselves victims (such as juveniles or adults who became criminals because they were neglected or abused as children). See "Comprehensive List of Costs and Consequences of Crime."

Aggregate annual victim costs in the United States

The data can be combined to estimate the total cost of crime to victims in the United States. Including the value of intangible quality of life losses, victim losses due to crimes against individuals and households amounted to $450 billion annually during the 1987-1990 time period. This equals about $1,800 per U.S. resident. Tangible costs alone exceed $400 per resident. These losses included $18 billion in medical and mental heath care spending; $87 billion in other tangible costs; and pain, suffering, and reduced quality of life valued at $345 billion. The largest tangible expense is property damage and loss. The second major tangible cost component is lost productivity.

All of the cost estimates reported here are expressed in discounted present value terms. In other words, although medical